A: An author writing for a publication must follow the rules established by the publisher to avoid inconsistencies among journal articles or book chapters.

For example, without rules of style, three different manuscripts might use sub-test, subtest, and Subtest in one issue of a journal or book. Although the meaning of the word is the same (in this case, subtest is APA style), such variations in style may distract or confuse the reader.

The need for a consistent style becomes more apparent when complex material is presented, such as tables or statistics.

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A: APA style focuses on the needs of presenting psychological information. APA style omits general rules explained in widely available style books and examples of usage with little relevance to the behavioral and social sciences.

Among the most helpful general guides to editorial style are Words into Type (Skillin & Gay, 1974) and the Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago Press, 1993).

Style manuals agree more often than they disagree. Where they disagree, the Publication Manual, because it is based on the special requirements of psychology, takes precedence for APA publications.

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A: We are not able to send you specific information related to your topic, but APA might have information in one of its databases that will help you to find literature that's already been written on your topic. These databases, which contain summaries of the literature and full-text APA articles, can serve as useful tools in completing your assignments.

APA's bibliographic databases and printed indexes provide summaries of journal articles, book chapters, books, and other scholarly documents in psychology and related disciplines. The bibliographic literature references are accessible via a number of resources, including the PsycINFO online database, the ClinPSYC CD-ROM databases, and the printed index Psychological Abstracts.

Many university libraries and other research institutions subscribe or provide access to one or more of these resources. If you are unable to gain access through such an institution, however, another option is to establish an account through a commercial online service and do your own searching. Information is available on our PsycINFO Web site about your various access options, including access to online services via the Internet.

APA also provides "pay-per-view" access to these databases. You can get 24-hour access to APA's PsycINFO database (PsycINFO Direct) and retrieve individual APA journal articles (PsycARTICLES Direct). There is a fee for using these products.

We also recommend that you read APA's online pamphlet, "Library Research in Psychology: Finding It Easily." This pamphlet will help steer you toward additional resources.

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A: When citing an entire Web site, it is sufficient to give the address of the site in just the text. For example, Kidspsych is a wonderful interactive web site for children (http://www.kidspsych.org).

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A: This is an oversight. Each of these examples should include a retrieval date after the word retrieved and before the word from. Corrected examples appear in APA Style Guide for Electronic Resources as well as in the second and later printings of the manual.

APA Style Guide for Electronic Resources is a downloadable PDF that is available for $11.95 from our web site.
Download APA Style Guide for Electronic Resources now

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A: Yes. Mastering APA Style is a workbook for learning APA style.

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A: If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then change to regular type and give the page range without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, include "pp." before the page numbers so the reader will understand that the numbers refer to pagination. Use "p." if the source is a page or less long.

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A: A couple of guidelines in chapter 2's Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language are at work here. One is to acknowledge human participation. The other is to be specific. Subjects is a fairly nondescriptive, passive term. Identifying human subjects as participants, respondents, children, patients, clients, and so forth increases specificity. (Subjects is perfectly appropriate when the person cannot him- or herself provide informed consent.)

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A: APA style calls for a list of References instead of a bibliography. The requirements of a reference list are that all references cited in the text of a paper must be listed alphabetically by first author's last name in the list of References and that all references listed must be cited within the text. A bibliography, on the other hand, typically includes resources in addition to those cited in the text and may include annotated descriptions of the items listed. In general, the list of References is double-spaced and listed alphabetically by first author's last name. For each reference, the first line is typed flush with the left margin, and any additional lines are indented as a group a few spaces to the right of the left margin (this is called a hanging indent, see here for an example).

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A: When there is no author for a Web page, the title moves to the first position of the reference entry:

The text citation would then just cite a few words of the title to point the reader to the right area of your reference list: …are most at risk of contracting the disease ("New Child," 2001).

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A: Because the material does not include page numbers, you can include any of the following in the text to cite the quotation (from p. 120 of the Publication Manual):

1. A paragraph number, if provided; alternatively, you could count paragraphs down from the beginning of the document.
2. An overarching heading plus a paragraph number within that section.
3. Nothing. Just put quotation marks around the words you're using, which the reader can use as a search string.

Because there is no date and no author, your text citation would include the first couple of words from the title and "n.d." for no date (e.g., para. 5, "Style List," n.d.). The entry in the reference list might look something like this:

A: An interview is not considered recoverable data, so no reference to this is provided in the References. You may, however, cite the interview within the text as a personal communication. For example,

(J. Smith, personal communication, August 15, 2001)

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A: To cite secondary sources, refer to both sources in the text, but include in the References list only the source that you actually used. For instance, suppose you read Feist (1998) and would like to paraphrase the following sentence within that book: Bandura (1989) defined self-efficacy as "people's beliefs about their capabilities to exercise control over events that affect their lives" (p. 1175).

In this case, your in-text citation would be "(Bandura, 1989, as cited in Feist, 1998)." Feist (1998) would be fully referenced within the list of References. Bandura (1989) would not be listed. For more information on citing secondary sources, see Example 22 on p. 247 of the Publication Manual.

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A: Unlike manual typewriters, word-processing software uses fonts that result in proportional spacing, so additional spacing around periods is no longer necessary. Uniform spacing around punctuation also saves a step in preparing word-processing files for electronic editing. As a publisher, APA does not return manuscripts on the basis of the spacing around punctuation.

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